by Matthew Law

One of the many theoretical frameworks that can be applied to interpreting archaeological data is informed by Marxism. 

MARXIST THEORY: Karl Marx was neither an archaeologist nor even an historian. His theories are not necessarily intended for the use we put them to. There was no ‘Marxist Archaeology' during his lifetime: it is a later invention used to describe the application of his theories in the interpretation of archaeology and ancient history.

BASIC PRINCIPLES: I) Marxists see society as being divided between the infrastructure (the economic base of society, e.g. production) and the legal and political superstructure. As the infrastructure changes, so too must the superstructure.
II) There is conflict and contradiction in the forces of production as division of labour means that different people have different roles in terms of production and consumption. This creates class antagonism, which will eventually overturn and replace the existing social order.
III) Ideology in a society ‘naturalises' the existing social order, which makes the existing order seem like the best possible way. It also makes interests that are sectional (e.g. to the upper classes) appear universal (of benefit to everyone), and it masks what is really going on by denying that inequalities exist.

These principles can be applied to all historically documented forms such as mode of production or social relation of production. Many French neo-Marxist anthropologists have extended Marxist analysis of change in complex class societies to explain change in simpler ones.

Even where Marxist theory has not been applied strictly, it has often informed archaeologists, such as V.G. Childe, who combined Marxism with diffusion and typology, which are not elements of Marxist theory. Neo-Marxism and Structural-Marxism are further examples of how the basic principles can be adapted.

 These theories present us with a complex, and often imaginative and ingenious, interplay of social processes. They have a very broad scope, which denies the opposition between synchronic (at one moment in time) and diachronic (throughout time), which is found in systems thinking and functional archaeology. Marxist interpretations are linked to the call for a genuine theory of history, centred on social dynamics and transformation processes. Marxist theories are observations of human nature, past and present. They provide a new line of thought for interpreting data and looking at evidence, allowing us to see the social realities behind masking ideologies. The majority of archaeological work is focussed on economy, religion and hierarchy -all key components of Marxist theory. There are almost limitless ways that Marxist theory can be reinvented.

MARXIST THEORY OF SOCIAL CHANGE:
o The infrastructure of society includes the forces of production (e.g. labour) and social relations of production (i.e. the way labour is divided between people)
o On top of this is the superstructure, which is the political and legal framework of society.
o The superstructure depends on the infrastructure, so when the latter changes, so must the former.
o Conflict arises because the social relations are unequal, for example a feudal baron's wealth is built on the back of the serfs who farm his land.
o This ultimately leads to an upheaval of the social order.
o The ideology of the superstructure makes the existing system seem normal and just.

BENEFITS OF MARXIST ARCHAEOLOGY:
o It seeks to understand change as a continual process throughout history.
o It looks at a society as a whole, not just focussing on distinct categories.
o It sets out a range of modes of production, such as ‘ancient', based on slavery, and ‘feudal', based on serfs tied to land.
o It provides timeless observations of human nature, both past and present.
o Most archaeological research focuses to some degree on economy, religion and hierarchy--all key components of Marxist theory.
o Marxist theories enable us to see social realities that lie beyond masking Ideologies (for example, in our society burial practices are egalitarian, but does that mirror our society?).
o There is an almost limitless number of ways that Marxist theory can be reinvented.

ADAPTATIONS TO MARXIST THEORIES:
o Structural-Marxism states that the ideological and material aspects of society are mutually influential. Recent adaptations have shifted the emphasis in influence from infrastructure to superstructure.
o World Systems Theory explains the relationships between global societies at a material and ideological level.
o V.G. Childe was influenced by Marxist theory, but also added aspects of diffusion and typology to his interpretations.
o Marx originally saw change as linear, with its ultimate end in Communism, but others, e.g. Childe, rejected this, proposing multi-linear change with no inevitable outcomes.
o The work of Frankenstein, Friedman, Rowland and Wallerstein, to name but a few, has shown that there is plenty of room for expansion in Marxist theory.

Return to Archaeological Theory

Return to Contents